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Garakani Dashteh S, Mortezayi M. (2025). Title: Mosque of Malek Zuzan on the Mongol Invasion Route: Examining an Early Example of Cultural Heritage Protection in Armed Conflict. Athar. 46(110), 7-27. doi:10.61882/Athar.2257.2051
URL: http://athar.richt.ir/article-2-2051-en.html

Abstract
Malek Zuzan Mosque in Khorasan is among the major architectural works of the Khwarazmshahian period, with its construction beginning in the early 13th century CE. Studies and excavations conducted in this mosque during the 1980s and 1990s revealed many previously unclear aspects regarding this structure, such as its construction over the remains of a previous Seljuk Mosque, the interruption of building operations due to the onset of Mongol attacks in 1219 CE, and the discovery of an old Seljuk stucco mihrab, which had been masterfully protected within layers of mud bricks and fine sand. It remains unclear whether this protective measure was taken intentionally to preserve the mihrab during construction or out of fear of the Mongol invasion. This study aims, for the first time, to evaluate the level of threat faced by Malek Zuzan Mosque during these years while examining the routes of the Mongol attacks in Khorasan. Additionally, by referring to certain provisions of international conventions and treaties on the protection of cultural property in armed conflicts, the study compares the protective measures taken for the Seljuk mihrab on the eve of the Mongol attacks with these provisions. The findings indicate that Malek Zuzan Mosque lay along the routes of three out of the four main Mongol attacks on Khorasan, thereby placing the city at high risk. Furthermore, the review of the protective measures applied to the mihrab demonstrates their alignment with several key provisions of international conventions.
Keywords: Khwarazmshahian, Mongols, Khorasan, Zuzan, Hague Convention.چ

Introduction
After the end of World War II in 1945, the reconstruction of vast ruins and the protection of cultural heritage became one of the main concerns of the international community. The enormous destruction caused by the war, particularly in the fields of culture and art, paved the way for the establishment of institutions and conventions aimed at preventing the recurrence of such tragedies. The most important of these documents is the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, which, together with its Additional Protocols (1954, 1999), created the first international legal framework in this field. This Convention marked the beginning of a global approach to the protection of heritage in times of crisis.
Although the protection of cultural property during wartime was formally addressed in legal terms in the twentieth century, historical evidence suggests that this concern has much deeper and older roots. A remarkable historical example in this regard is the protective measures taken during the Mongol invasions in the thirteenth century. The devastating campaigns of Chinggis Khan destroyed many of the great cities of the Iranian plateau, such as Khwarazm, Nishapur, Herat, and Rey, and annihilated a large number of cultural monuments. However, amidst this widespread destruction, there are examples of deliberate and conscious efforts to preserve cultural objects.
A prominent example of such an effort is the Seljuk mihrab of the Malek Zuzan Mosque, which was discovered almost intact during excavations directed by Rajab-Ali Labbaf Khaniki in the 1980s. Archaeological investigations revealed that, in the thirteenth century, the mihrab had been protected in its original location by enclosing it within a brick casing filled with sand. This action was probably taken because construction work was interrupted following the Mongol invasions.
The present study, which forms part of a broader project on the annual movements of the Mongols, aims to analyze this conservation measure and compare it with modern principles of heritage protection during armed conflicts. The paper addresses two main questions: first, to what extent was the region of Zuzan threatened by the Mongol invasions in the thirteenth century? and second, how comparable are the protective methods used for the mihrab to contemporary standards and approaches?
The research methodology is based on the analysis of historical sources and the examination of archaeological reports, followed by a comparison of the findings with the provisions of international conventions and guidelines, including The Hague Convention and the recommendations of ICCROM and ICOMOS. This study seeks to demonstrate that the concern for safeguarding cultural heritage during times of war has deep historical roots and existed long before the emergence of modern legal frameworks.

Discussion
The Malek Zuzan Mosque, located in the Zuzan plain of southern Khorasan Razavi, represents the substantial remains of an early 7th century AH / 13th century AD mosque. Archaeological investigations indicate the site underwent at least four distinct construction phases, from the early Islamic centuries through the 6th century AH / 12th century AD. The mosque’s development peaked during the Seljuk period, featuring a hypostyle plan with a stucco mihrab. However, in the early 7th century AH / 13th century AD, under the Khwarazmshahs, a new architectural project was initiated. This new design replaced former adornments, including terracotta decorations, with glazed tiles and bricks. The colossal mosque was planned with two large iwans (east and west), but its construction was abandoned following the Mongol invasions commencing in 616 AH / 1219 AD. Evidence such as incomplete brick bonding and unfinished decorative elements substantiates that the project remained unfinished.
Zuzan was situated on the path of multiple Mongol military expeditions into Khorasan. Historical sources confirm that the region lay on the route of at least three major campaigns: those led by Subutai and Jebe, Tolui, and later Hulegu. A specific historical account notes Sultan Jalal al-Din’s passage through Zuzan while fleeing the Mongols; the local ruler, fearing Mongol retaliation, refused him entry. This incident underscores the direct threat the city faced. This persistent state of threat undoubtedly contributed to the suspension of all construction activities at the mosque (Figure 1).
A significant archaeological discovery was a valuable Seljuk-period mihrab, which had been protected in the 7th century AH / 13th century AD using an ingenious conservation method. The technique involved constructing a brick casing in front of the mihrab, filling the intermediate space with a row of stacked bricks, and packing the final gap with fine sand (Figures 2–5). This preemptive safeguarding measure aligns remarkably with modern principles for protecting cultural heritage during conflicts. The methodology corresponds with stipulations of the 1954 Hague Convention, such as the obligation to undertake protective measures during peacetime. It also resonates with the ICCROM Risk Preparedness guidelines concerning threat assessment, designing emergency in-situ protection plans, and creating a secure concealment for the artifact. Consequently, the protective strategy employed at Zuzan can be regarded as a pioneering example consistent with contemporary conservation standards (Table 2).

Conclusion
The construction of the Malek Zuzan Mosque began in the early 7th century AH (13th century AD) but was abandoned unfinished following the Mongol invasions of 616–617 AH (1219–1220 AD). Erected upon the remains of an earlier Seljuk Mosque, the new structure extensively reused building materials from its predecessor, particularly bricks. Among these salvaged elements, the Seljuk stucco mihrab held exceptional significance, valued both for its religious sanctity and its historical-artistic importance. The patrons intended to reinstall it in the new building, a plan ultimately thwarted by the Mongol incursions.
The Mongol invasions of Khorasan unfolded in three primary phases. While Zuzan was not directly threatened during the first wave in 617 AH (1220 AD), the second offensive, led by Tolui, passed alarmingly close to the city. A third phase, the same year, involving the pursuit of Sultan Jalal al-Din, posed a direct threat to Zuzan, though historical evidence suggests its fortifications initially spared it from destruction. A final passage of Mongol forces under Hulegu in 653 AH (1255 AD) further underscored the region’s prolonged instability.
This persistent state of danger forced the master builders to halt construction and implement ingenious protective measures for the site’s most valuable assets, notably the Seljuk mihrab. Their solution was a remarkable example of in-situ conservation: carefully encasing the mihrab within a protective shell of adobe bricks and sand. A comparison of this 13th-century method with modern principles, such as those in the 1954 Hague Convention, reveals a profound alignment with contemporary concepts of “preventive conservation” and “protective preparedness.”
This study demonstrates that traditional conservation practices, even over seven centuries ago, were guided by rational and effective principles comparable to modern theory. The historical case of Zuzan thus serves as a valuable model, highlighting the importance of integrating ancestral ingenuity with contemporary systems and reaffirming the critical role of human foresight and proactive planning in safeguarding cultural heritage during times of crisis.